When President John F. Kennedy met his French counterpart during the Berlin crisis of 1961, he found himself having to offer reassurances. With Moscow demanding that NATO withdraw its forces from the divided city, President Charles de Gaulle cast doubt on America’s determination to protect Europe. If Soviet leader Nikita Khrushchev dispatched his armies across the continent, de Gaulle wondered, would the U.S. really be willing to sacrifice New York in a nuclear exchange to defend Paris?

       “If the General himself, who has worked with the United States for so long, could question American firmness, Mr. Khrushchev can question it also," Kennedy replied, according to notes of the meeting. In the end, the U.S. and allies rejected the ultimatum, Moscow blinked first, and West Berlin remained free.

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